Friday, April 27, 2012
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Thursday, April 12, 2012
ELECTRICAL TERMS
ABSORPTION-RESISTING: Incapable of taking up water (or any other liquid deleterious to the material under consideration, to which such material is liable to be exposed) sufficiently to affect electrical or mechanical properties to an appreciable extent under conditions of use.
ACCESSIBLE: (As applied to wiring methods) Not permanently closed in by the structure or finish of the bldg; capable of being removed without disturbing the building of finish.
(As applied to equipment) Admitting close approach because not guarded by locked doors, elevators or other effective means.
ACCESSORIA TYPE BLDG: A building that has partitions from the first floor up to the last floor with each bay or section intended for different and independent occupants.
APPLIANCE: Appliances are current consuming equipment, fixed or portable;
AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER: An air circuit breaker is one in which the interruption occurs in air.
AIR TERMINAL: (For lightning protection) An air terminal is the combination of elevation rod and brace, or footing placed on upper portions of structures, together with tip or point if used.
AIR SWITCH: An air switch is one with contacts the separate in air.
ALIVE: means electrically connected to a source of potential difference, or electrical charged so as to have a potential different from that of the earth.
APPROVED: Acceptable to the authority enforcing this Code. When used with reference to any particular electrical equipment means that such equipment has been submitted for examination and test to the Gov’t agency concerned and that formal approval has been given to the effect that it conforms to the Standards established under the provisions of this Code.
APPROVED FIREDOOR: a fire door and hardware of a type approved for the class of service to which it is applied and labeled or certified by competent and recognized authority.
ARC WELDING: arc welding is a group of welding processes wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc or arcs, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.
* ARC VOLTAGE: arc voltage is the voltage across the welding arc.
ARMOUR: a wrapping of galvanized interlocking steel strip forming an integral part of the assembly of certain insulated cables, wires or cords, which are capable of withstanding certain mechanical tests.
* ARMORED CABLE: (In interior wiring) An armored cable is a fabricated assembly of insulated conductors and a flexible metallic covering.
ARMORED CABLE: (in interior wiring) Is a provided cable with a wrapping of metal, usually steel wires or tapes, primarily for the purpose of mechanical protection.
ASKAREL: A synthetic nonflammable insulating liquid which, when decomposed parts included in an electric arc, evolves only non-explosive gases.
ASSEMBLY: is a combination of all or of a portion of component parts included in an electric apparatus, mounted on a supporting frame or panel, and properly interwired.
ATTACHMENT PLAG: (Plug Cap) An attachment plug is a device which by insertion in a receptacle, established connection between the conductors or attached flexible cord and the conductors connected permanently to the receptacle.
AUTHORIZED PERSON: A qualified person who by the nature of his duties or occupation is obliged to approach or handle electrical equipment; or a person who having been warned on the hazards involved, has been instructed or authorized to do so by someone in authority.
AUTOMATIC CONTROLLER: an electric controller in which the influence directing the performance of its basic functions is automatic.
AUTOMATIC WELDING: is welding with equipment, which performs the entire welding operation without constant observation and adjustment or is controls by a person. The equipment may or may not perform the loading and unloading of the work.
Auxiliary gutter: A sheet-metal enclosure for conductors, cables and bus bars at switchboards, meter centers, distribution centers and similar points.
B & S GAUGE: the Brown and Shaped (or American) wire Gauge as applied to non ferrous conductors and non-ferrous sheet metal.
* BASE LOAD: Is the minimum load over a given period of time.
* BRACH CIRCUIT: A branch circuit is that portion of a wiring system extending beyond the final over current device protecting the circuit. A device not approved from branch circuit protection such as thermal cutout or motor overload protective device, is not considered as the overcurrent device protecting the circuit.
BRANCH CIRCUIT-APPLIANCE: is a circuit supplying energy to one or more outlets to which appliances are to be connected; such circuits to have no permanently connected lighting fixtures not a part of an appliance.
BRANCH-CIRCUIT DISTRIBUTION CENTER: is a distribution center at which branch circuits are supplied.
BRANCH-CIRCUIT – GENERAL PURPOSE: a branch circuit that supplies a number of outlets for lighting and appliances.
BRANCH-CIRCUIT – INDIVIDUAL: A branch circuit that supplies only one utilization equipment.
BREAKDOWN: (Puncture) A Breakdown is a disruptive discharge through insulation.
BUILDING: a structure which stands alone or which is cut off from adjoining structures by fire walls with all opening therein protected by approved fire doors.
BUS: Is a conductor, or group of conductors, in switchgear assemblies, which serves as a common connection for two or more circuits.
BUSWAY: An approved, completely assembled metal roughing and fittings therefore containing bare conductors intended for use as feeders, the conductors being suitably supported on insulators.
CABINET: an enclosure designed either for surface or flush mounting and provided with a frame, mat or trim in which swinging doors are hung.
CABLE: is either a stranded conductor with or without insulation and other coverings, or a combination of conductors insulated from one another.
CAGE: Is a system of conductors forming an essentially continuous conducting network over the object protected and including any conductors necessary for interconnection of the object protected and an adequate ground.
CAPACITY FACTOR: The capacity factor is the ratio of the full load rating to the average load on a machine or equipment for the period or time considered.
CIRCUIT BREAKER: A device designed to open under abnormal conditions a current carrying without injury to itself. The term applies only to the automatic type designed to trip on a determined overload of current.
CLEARANCE (Transmission & Distribution): clearance is the minimum separation between two conductors, between conductors, and supports, or other objects between conductors and ground.
CLEAT: is an assembly of two pieces of insulating material provided with groovers for holding one or more conductors at a definite spacing from the surface wired over and from each other, and with holes for fastening in position.
CLIMBING SPACE: is the vertical space reserved along the side of a pole or tower to give linemen ready access to equipment and conductors installed thereon.
COMBINED MECH & ELEC STRENGTH OF AN INSULATOR: the combined mechanical and electrical strength of an insulator is the loading in pounds at which the insulator fails to perform its function either electrically or mechanically, voltage and mechanical stress being applied simultaneously.
COMMUNICATON CIRCUIT: A circuit which is a part of a so called central station system. Includes telephone , telegraph, fire and burglar alarms, watchmen, and sprinkler supervisory circuits.
CONCEALED: Rendered inaccessibility by the structure circuits or finish of the bldg. Wires in concealed raceways are considered concealed, even though they may become accessible by withdrawing them.
* CONDUCTOR: A conductor is a wire or combination of wires not insulated from one another, suitable for carrying electric current.
BARE: a bare conductor is one having no covering or insulation.
COVERED: a covered conductor is one having one or more layers of non-conducting materials that are not recognized as insulation.
CONDUIT FITTING: A conduit fitting is necessary which serves to complete a conduit syStem, such as bushings and access fittings.
CONE OF PROTECTION: Is the space enclosed by a cone formed with its apex at the highest point of a lightning rod or protecting tower, the diameter of the base of the cone having a definite relation to the height of the rod or tower.
CONNECTED LOAD: The connected load is the sum of the continuous ratings of the load consuming apparatus connected to the system or any part thereof.
CONNECTOR: (Splicing sleeve) is a metal sleeve, usually copper that is slipped over and secured to the butted ends of the conductors in making up a joint.
CONNECTOR, PRESSURE: (Splicing sleeve) a pressure wire connector is a device which establishes the connection between two or more conductors and a terminal by means of mechanical pressure and without the use of soder.
CONTACT SURFACE: Contact surfaces are the surfaces which meet and through which the current is transferred when the contacts are closed.
CONTINUOUS CURRENT RATING: The continuous current which may be carried for an unlimited period without causing any of the established limitations to be exceeded.
CONTROL: is broadly the methods and means of governing in some predetermined manner, the electric apparatus to which it is connected.
COOKING UNITS, COUNTER MOUNTED: an assembly of one or more domestic surface heating elements for cooking purposes designed for flush mounting in or supported by a counter and which assembly is complete with inherent or separately mountable controls and internal wiring.
* CORONA: is luminous discharge due to ionization of the air surrounding a conductor caused by a voltage gradient exceeding a certain critical value.
CURRENT-PERMIT: written permission from the corresponding Gov’t. electrical or inspection department to the electric power supply company to the effect that electric energy may be supplied to a particular installation.
CUTOUT BOX: An enclosure designed for surface or flush mounting and having swinging doors or covers secured directly to the walls of the box proper.
DUMP PLACE: any place in which moisture is present , either permanently or impertinently, to such an extent that it would be likely to impair the effectiveness of an installation conforming to the minimum requirements for ordinary conditions.
DEAD: means free from any electric connections to a source of potential difference from that of the earth. The term is used only with reference to current-carrying parts which are sometimes alive.
DEAD-FRONT MOUNTING: is the method of mounting a circuit breaker or switch with all exposed operating parts adequately insulated, so that a protective grounded and/or insulated barrier is interposed between all parts carrying electric current and the operator.
DEMAND FACTOR: demand factor of any system, or part of a system, is the ratio of the maximum demand of the system, or parts of a system, to the total connected load of the system, or of the part of the system under consideration.
DEVICE: A unit of an electrical system, which is intended to carry but not utilize electric energy.
DISCONNECTING MEANS: a device, or grp of devices, or other means whereby the conductors of a circuit can be disconnected from their source of supply.
DISCONNECTING SWITCH: a disconnecting switch is the one used for closing, opening or changing the connections in a circuit or system, or for isolating purposes, and is intended to be operated only after the circuit has been opened by some other means.
DISRUPTIVE DISCHARGE: is the sudden and large increase in current through an insulating medium due to the complete failure of the medium under electrostatic stress.
DISTRIBUTION CENTER: is a point at which energy is divided among feeders or branch circuits or combinations of both, and where over current devices are usually located.
DISTRIBUTOR DUCT: is a duct installed for occupancy of distribution mains.
DIVERSITY FACTOR: is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various subdivisions of a system to the maximum demand of the whole system.
DRIP-PROOF: means so constructed or protected that successful operation is not interfered with when falling drops of liquid or solid particles strike the enclosure at any angle from 0 to 15 degrees from the downward vertical unless otherwise specified.
DRIPTIGHT: means so constructed or protected that drops of liquid or solid particles striking the enclosure at any angle from 0 to 15 degrees from the downward vertical unless otherwise specified, cannot enter the enclosure either directly or by striking and running along a horizontal or inwardly inclined surface.
* DUCT: is a single enclosed runway for conductors and cables.
DUMBWAITER: a hoisting and lowering mechanism equipped with a car, which moves in guides in a substantially vertical direction, the floor area of which does not exceed 9sq ft, whose compartment height does not exceed 3ft 6in, the capacity of which does not exceed 500lbs, and which is used exclusively for carrying freight.
DUST IGNITION PROOF MACHINES: is a totally enclosed machine whose enclosure is designed and constructed in manner which will exclude ignitable amounts of dusts or amounts of dust which might affect performance with the Philippine Electrical Code.
DUSTPROOF: so constructed or protected that dust will not interfere with successful operation.
DUST-TIGHT: so constructed or protected that dust will not enter the enclosing case.
DUTY: Duty is the requirement of service which defines the degree of regularity of the load.
CONTINUOUS: is a requirement of service that demands operation for alternate intervals of (1) load and no load, or (2) load and rest; or (3) load, no load and rest.
INTERMITTENT: is a requirement of service that demands operation at a substantially constant load for an indefinitely long time.
PERIODIC: is a type of intermittent duty in which the load conditions are regularly recurrent.
SHORT TIME: short time duty is a requirement of service that demands operation at a substantially constant load for a short and definitely specified time.
VARYING: is a requirement of service that demands operations at loads and for intervals of time both of which may be subject to wide variations.
ELECTRICAL METALLIC TUBING: metal pipe into which electric wires may be drawn and which has a wall thinner than that of rigid conduit with an outside diameter sufficiently different from that of rigid conduit to render it impracticable for anyone to thread it standard pipe thead.
ELECTRIC CONTROLLER: is a device or a group of devices, which serves to govern, in some predetermined manner, the electric power delivered to the apparatus to which it is connected.
ELECTRIC ELEVATOR: one which the motion of the car is obtained through an electric motor directly applied to the elevator machinery.
* ELECTRIC MOTOR: is a machine which transforms electric power into mechanical power.
ELECRIC SIGN: a fixed or portable, self-contained electrically illuminated appliance with words or symbols designed to convey information or attract attention.
ELEVATOR: a hoisting and lowering mechanism equipped with a car or platform which moves in guides in a substantially vertical direction.
ELEVATOR MACHINE: The machinery and its equipment used in raising and lowering the elevator car or platform.
ELEVATION ROD: (for lightning protection) an elevator is the vertical portion of conductor in an air terminal by means of which it is elevated above the object to be protected.
EMERGENCY LIGHTS: all lights, in a theatre, or other building used for public assembly, which are kept lighted continuously while the theatre or building is being used to provide safe exit and entry.
EMERGENCY SERVICE: is an additional service intended only for used under emergency conditions, that is when the normal source of power fails.
ENCLOSED: surrounded by a case which prevents a person from accidentally contacting live parts.
EQUIPMENT: a general term including material, fitting, devices, appliances, fixtures, apparatus and the like, used as a part of, or in connection with, an electrical installation.
EXPLOSION-PROOF: enclosed in a case which is capable of withstanding an explosion of a specified gas or vapor which occur within it, and of preventing the ignition of a specified gas or vapor surrounding the enclosure by sparks, flashes or explosion of the gas or vapor within.
EXPOSED: (as applied to wiring method) exposed means that an object or device can be inadvertently touched or approached nearer than a safe distance by any person. It is applied to objects not suitably guarded or isolated.
EXPULSION TYPE ARRESTER: is an arrester having a characteristic element in which an arc is confined and brought in contact with gas evolving or other arc extinguishing material in a manner which enables it to interrupt power follow current.
EXTENSION CORD: is an assembly of a flexible cord with an attachment plug on one end and a connector on the other.
EXTERNALLY OPERABLE: capable of being operated without exposing the operator to contact with live parts.
FEEDERS: is the circuit conductors between the service equipment, or generator switchboard of an isolated plant, and the branch circuit overcurrent device.
FIREPROOF: as applied to buildings or portions thereof, means that hey are constructed of approved masonry, reinforced concrete or other non-flammable materials.
FIXTURE: an integral, separate or self-contained unit which may contain one or more bulbs or fluorescent tubes.
FLAME-RETARDANT: means so constructed or treated that it will not readily burn or convey flame.
FLAMMABLE: applied to readily combustible or ignitable materials such as straw, hay, wood shavings, light draperies, celluloid oils, gasoline, etc.
FLASHOVER: is a disruptive discharge around or over the surface of a solid or liquid insulator.
FLEXIBLE CONDUIT: non-rigid metal conduit into which conductors may be drawn.
FLEXIBLE TUBING: non-metallic and non-rigid tubing commonly known as “loom”, into which a conductor may be drawn.
FOOTCANDLE, FC: is the unit of illumination when the foot is taken as the unit of length. It is the illumination on a surface one square foot in area on which there is uniformly distributed flux of one lumen, or the illumination produced at a surface all point of which are at a distance of one foot from a uniform point source of one candle.
FOOTINGS: are structure set in the ground to support the bases of towers, poles or other overhead structures.
FUSE: is an overcurrent protective device with a circuit-opening fusible member which is heated and severed by the passage of overcurrent through it.
FUSE CURRENT RATING: the current rating of a fuse is designed RMS alternating, or direct current which will carry continuously under stated conditions.
FUSE CUTOUT: is a form of use and its holder or enclosure characterized by the ready and safe replace ability of the fuse unit.
FUSE HOLDER: is a device to support a fusible, link and to complete the contact between the fusible link and the fuse clips.
FUSE VOLTAGE RATING: the voltage rating of a fuse is that RMS alternating or direct voltage for which it is designated.
GAS-TIGHT: so constructed that gas cannot enter the enclosing case.
GENERAL-USE SWITCH: a switch intended for use in general distribution and branch-circuits. It is rated in amperes and is capable of interrupting its rated current at rated voltage.
GROUND: is a conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment and earth, or to some conducting body which serves in place of the earth.
GROUNDED: means connected to earth or to some conducting body which serves in place of the earth.
GROUNDED CIRCUIT: is a circuit in which one conductor or point is intentionally grounded, either solidity or though a grounding device. Usually the neutral conductor or neutral point of transformer or generator windings.
GROUNDED-ELECTRODE: a buried metallic water-piping system, or metal object or device buried in, or driven into, the ground to which a grounding-conductor is electrically and mechanically connected.
GROUNDING CONDUCTOR: a conductor used to connect an equipment, device or wiring system with a grounding electrode or electrodes.
GUARDED: Covered, shielded, fenced, enclosed or otherwise protected, by means of suitable covers or casings barriers, rails or screens, mats or platforms, to remove the liability of dangerous contact or approach by persons or objects to a point of danger.
GUY: is a tension member usually galvanized wire, having one and secured fixed object on the ground and the other end attached to a pole, cross arm or other structural part which it supports.
GUY INSULATOR: is an insulating element, generally of elongated form with traverse holes or slots for the purpose of insulating two sections of a guy or provide insulation between structure and anchor and also provide protection in case of broken wires falling on the guy.
ACCESSIBLE: (As applied to wiring methods) Not permanently closed in by the structure or finish of the bldg; capable of being removed without disturbing the building of finish.
(As applied to equipment) Admitting close approach because not guarded by locked doors, elevators or other effective means.
ACCESSORIA TYPE BLDG: A building that has partitions from the first floor up to the last floor with each bay or section intended for different and independent occupants.
APPLIANCE: Appliances are current consuming equipment, fixed or portable;
AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER: An air circuit breaker is one in which the interruption occurs in air.
AIR TERMINAL: (For lightning protection) An air terminal is the combination of elevation rod and brace, or footing placed on upper portions of structures, together with tip or point if used.
AIR SWITCH: An air switch is one with contacts the separate in air.
ALIVE: means electrically connected to a source of potential difference, or electrical charged so as to have a potential different from that of the earth.
APPROVED: Acceptable to the authority enforcing this Code. When used with reference to any particular electrical equipment means that such equipment has been submitted for examination and test to the Gov’t agency concerned and that formal approval has been given to the effect that it conforms to the Standards established under the provisions of this Code.
APPROVED FIREDOOR: a fire door and hardware of a type approved for the class of service to which it is applied and labeled or certified by competent and recognized authority.
ARC WELDING: arc welding is a group of welding processes wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc or arcs, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.
* ARC VOLTAGE: arc voltage is the voltage across the welding arc.
ARMOUR: a wrapping of galvanized interlocking steel strip forming an integral part of the assembly of certain insulated cables, wires or cords, which are capable of withstanding certain mechanical tests.
* ARMORED CABLE: (In interior wiring) An armored cable is a fabricated assembly of insulated conductors and a flexible metallic covering.
ARMORED CABLE: (in interior wiring) Is a provided cable with a wrapping of metal, usually steel wires or tapes, primarily for the purpose of mechanical protection.
ASKAREL: A synthetic nonflammable insulating liquid which, when decomposed parts included in an electric arc, evolves only non-explosive gases.
ASSEMBLY: is a combination of all or of a portion of component parts included in an electric apparatus, mounted on a supporting frame or panel, and properly interwired.
ATTACHMENT PLAG: (Plug Cap) An attachment plug is a device which by insertion in a receptacle, established connection between the conductors or attached flexible cord and the conductors connected permanently to the receptacle.
AUTHORIZED PERSON: A qualified person who by the nature of his duties or occupation is obliged to approach or handle electrical equipment; or a person who having been warned on the hazards involved, has been instructed or authorized to do so by someone in authority.
AUTOMATIC CONTROLLER: an electric controller in which the influence directing the performance of its basic functions is automatic.
AUTOMATIC WELDING: is welding with equipment, which performs the entire welding operation without constant observation and adjustment or is controls by a person. The equipment may or may not perform the loading and unloading of the work.
Auxiliary gutter: A sheet-metal enclosure for conductors, cables and bus bars at switchboards, meter centers, distribution centers and similar points.
B & S GAUGE: the Brown and Shaped (or American) wire Gauge as applied to non ferrous conductors and non-ferrous sheet metal.
* BASE LOAD: Is the minimum load over a given period of time.
* BRACH CIRCUIT: A branch circuit is that portion of a wiring system extending beyond the final over current device protecting the circuit. A device not approved from branch circuit protection such as thermal cutout or motor overload protective device, is not considered as the overcurrent device protecting the circuit.
BRANCH CIRCUIT-APPLIANCE: is a circuit supplying energy to one or more outlets to which appliances are to be connected; such circuits to have no permanently connected lighting fixtures not a part of an appliance.
BRANCH-CIRCUIT DISTRIBUTION CENTER: is a distribution center at which branch circuits are supplied.
BRANCH-CIRCUIT – GENERAL PURPOSE: a branch circuit that supplies a number of outlets for lighting and appliances.
BRANCH-CIRCUIT – INDIVIDUAL: A branch circuit that supplies only one utilization equipment.
BREAKDOWN: (Puncture) A Breakdown is a disruptive discharge through insulation.
BUILDING: a structure which stands alone or which is cut off from adjoining structures by fire walls with all opening therein protected by approved fire doors.
BUS: Is a conductor, or group of conductors, in switchgear assemblies, which serves as a common connection for two or more circuits.
BUSWAY: An approved, completely assembled metal roughing and fittings therefore containing bare conductors intended for use as feeders, the conductors being suitably supported on insulators.
CABINET: an enclosure designed either for surface or flush mounting and provided with a frame, mat or trim in which swinging doors are hung.
CABLE: is either a stranded conductor with or without insulation and other coverings, or a combination of conductors insulated from one another.
CAGE: Is a system of conductors forming an essentially continuous conducting network over the object protected and including any conductors necessary for interconnection of the object protected and an adequate ground.
CAPACITY FACTOR: The capacity factor is the ratio of the full load rating to the average load on a machine or equipment for the period or time considered.
CIRCUIT BREAKER: A device designed to open under abnormal conditions a current carrying without injury to itself. The term applies only to the automatic type designed to trip on a determined overload of current.
CLEARANCE (Transmission & Distribution): clearance is the minimum separation between two conductors, between conductors, and supports, or other objects between conductors and ground.
CLEAT: is an assembly of two pieces of insulating material provided with groovers for holding one or more conductors at a definite spacing from the surface wired over and from each other, and with holes for fastening in position.
CLIMBING SPACE: is the vertical space reserved along the side of a pole or tower to give linemen ready access to equipment and conductors installed thereon.
COMBINED MECH & ELEC STRENGTH OF AN INSULATOR: the combined mechanical and electrical strength of an insulator is the loading in pounds at which the insulator fails to perform its function either electrically or mechanically, voltage and mechanical stress being applied simultaneously.
COMMUNICATON CIRCUIT: A circuit which is a part of a so called central station system. Includes telephone , telegraph, fire and burglar alarms, watchmen, and sprinkler supervisory circuits.
CONCEALED: Rendered inaccessibility by the structure circuits or finish of the bldg. Wires in concealed raceways are considered concealed, even though they may become accessible by withdrawing them.
* CONDUCTOR: A conductor is a wire or combination of wires not insulated from one another, suitable for carrying electric current.
BARE: a bare conductor is one having no covering or insulation.
COVERED: a covered conductor is one having one or more layers of non-conducting materials that are not recognized as insulation.
CONDUIT FITTING: A conduit fitting is necessary which serves to complete a conduit syStem, such as bushings and access fittings.
CONE OF PROTECTION: Is the space enclosed by a cone formed with its apex at the highest point of a lightning rod or protecting tower, the diameter of the base of the cone having a definite relation to the height of the rod or tower.
CONNECTED LOAD: The connected load is the sum of the continuous ratings of the load consuming apparatus connected to the system or any part thereof.
CONNECTOR: (Splicing sleeve) is a metal sleeve, usually copper that is slipped over and secured to the butted ends of the conductors in making up a joint.
CONNECTOR, PRESSURE: (Splicing sleeve) a pressure wire connector is a device which establishes the connection between two or more conductors and a terminal by means of mechanical pressure and without the use of soder.
CONTACT SURFACE: Contact surfaces are the surfaces which meet and through which the current is transferred when the contacts are closed.
CONTINUOUS CURRENT RATING: The continuous current which may be carried for an unlimited period without causing any of the established limitations to be exceeded.
CONTROL: is broadly the methods and means of governing in some predetermined manner, the electric apparatus to which it is connected.
COOKING UNITS, COUNTER MOUNTED: an assembly of one or more domestic surface heating elements for cooking purposes designed for flush mounting in or supported by a counter and which assembly is complete with inherent or separately mountable controls and internal wiring.
* CORONA: is luminous discharge due to ionization of the air surrounding a conductor caused by a voltage gradient exceeding a certain critical value.
CURRENT-PERMIT: written permission from the corresponding Gov’t. electrical or inspection department to the electric power supply company to the effect that electric energy may be supplied to a particular installation.
CUTOUT BOX: An enclosure designed for surface or flush mounting and having swinging doors or covers secured directly to the walls of the box proper.
DUMP PLACE: any place in which moisture is present , either permanently or impertinently, to such an extent that it would be likely to impair the effectiveness of an installation conforming to the minimum requirements for ordinary conditions.
DEAD: means free from any electric connections to a source of potential difference from that of the earth. The term is used only with reference to current-carrying parts which are sometimes alive.
DEAD-FRONT MOUNTING: is the method of mounting a circuit breaker or switch with all exposed operating parts adequately insulated, so that a protective grounded and/or insulated barrier is interposed between all parts carrying electric current and the operator.
DEMAND FACTOR: demand factor of any system, or part of a system, is the ratio of the maximum demand of the system, or parts of a system, to the total connected load of the system, or of the part of the system under consideration.
DEVICE: A unit of an electrical system, which is intended to carry but not utilize electric energy.
DISCONNECTING MEANS: a device, or grp of devices, or other means whereby the conductors of a circuit can be disconnected from their source of supply.
DISCONNECTING SWITCH: a disconnecting switch is the one used for closing, opening or changing the connections in a circuit or system, or for isolating purposes, and is intended to be operated only after the circuit has been opened by some other means.
DISRUPTIVE DISCHARGE: is the sudden and large increase in current through an insulating medium due to the complete failure of the medium under electrostatic stress.
DISTRIBUTION CENTER: is a point at which energy is divided among feeders or branch circuits or combinations of both, and where over current devices are usually located.
DISTRIBUTOR DUCT: is a duct installed for occupancy of distribution mains.
DIVERSITY FACTOR: is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various subdivisions of a system to the maximum demand of the whole system.
DRIP-PROOF: means so constructed or protected that successful operation is not interfered with when falling drops of liquid or solid particles strike the enclosure at any angle from 0 to 15 degrees from the downward vertical unless otherwise specified.
DRIPTIGHT: means so constructed or protected that drops of liquid or solid particles striking the enclosure at any angle from 0 to 15 degrees from the downward vertical unless otherwise specified, cannot enter the enclosure either directly or by striking and running along a horizontal or inwardly inclined surface.
* DUCT: is a single enclosed runway for conductors and cables.
DUMBWAITER: a hoisting and lowering mechanism equipped with a car, which moves in guides in a substantially vertical direction, the floor area of which does not exceed 9sq ft, whose compartment height does not exceed 3ft 6in, the capacity of which does not exceed 500lbs, and which is used exclusively for carrying freight.
DUST IGNITION PROOF MACHINES: is a totally enclosed machine whose enclosure is designed and constructed in manner which will exclude ignitable amounts of dusts or amounts of dust which might affect performance with the Philippine Electrical Code.
DUSTPROOF: so constructed or protected that dust will not interfere with successful operation.
DUST-TIGHT: so constructed or protected that dust will not enter the enclosing case.
DUTY: Duty is the requirement of service which defines the degree of regularity of the load.
CONTINUOUS: is a requirement of service that demands operation for alternate intervals of (1) load and no load, or (2) load and rest; or (3) load, no load and rest.
INTERMITTENT: is a requirement of service that demands operation at a substantially constant load for an indefinitely long time.
PERIODIC: is a type of intermittent duty in which the load conditions are regularly recurrent.
SHORT TIME: short time duty is a requirement of service that demands operation at a substantially constant load for a short and definitely specified time.
VARYING: is a requirement of service that demands operations at loads and for intervals of time both of which may be subject to wide variations.
ELECTRICAL METALLIC TUBING: metal pipe into which electric wires may be drawn and which has a wall thinner than that of rigid conduit with an outside diameter sufficiently different from that of rigid conduit to render it impracticable for anyone to thread it standard pipe thead.
ELECTRIC CONTROLLER: is a device or a group of devices, which serves to govern, in some predetermined manner, the electric power delivered to the apparatus to which it is connected.
ELECTRIC ELEVATOR: one which the motion of the car is obtained through an electric motor directly applied to the elevator machinery.
* ELECTRIC MOTOR: is a machine which transforms electric power into mechanical power.
ELECRIC SIGN: a fixed or portable, self-contained electrically illuminated appliance with words or symbols designed to convey information or attract attention.
ELEVATOR: a hoisting and lowering mechanism equipped with a car or platform which moves in guides in a substantially vertical direction.
ELEVATOR MACHINE: The machinery and its equipment used in raising and lowering the elevator car or platform.
ELEVATION ROD: (for lightning protection) an elevator is the vertical portion of conductor in an air terminal by means of which it is elevated above the object to be protected.
EMERGENCY LIGHTS: all lights, in a theatre, or other building used for public assembly, which are kept lighted continuously while the theatre or building is being used to provide safe exit and entry.
EMERGENCY SERVICE: is an additional service intended only for used under emergency conditions, that is when the normal source of power fails.
ENCLOSED: surrounded by a case which prevents a person from accidentally contacting live parts.
EQUIPMENT: a general term including material, fitting, devices, appliances, fixtures, apparatus and the like, used as a part of, or in connection with, an electrical installation.
EXPLOSION-PROOF: enclosed in a case which is capable of withstanding an explosion of a specified gas or vapor which occur within it, and of preventing the ignition of a specified gas or vapor surrounding the enclosure by sparks, flashes or explosion of the gas or vapor within.
EXPOSED: (as applied to wiring method) exposed means that an object or device can be inadvertently touched or approached nearer than a safe distance by any person. It is applied to objects not suitably guarded or isolated.
EXPULSION TYPE ARRESTER: is an arrester having a characteristic element in which an arc is confined and brought in contact with gas evolving or other arc extinguishing material in a manner which enables it to interrupt power follow current.
EXTENSION CORD: is an assembly of a flexible cord with an attachment plug on one end and a connector on the other.
EXTERNALLY OPERABLE: capable of being operated without exposing the operator to contact with live parts.
FEEDERS: is the circuit conductors between the service equipment, or generator switchboard of an isolated plant, and the branch circuit overcurrent device.
FIREPROOF: as applied to buildings or portions thereof, means that hey are constructed of approved masonry, reinforced concrete or other non-flammable materials.
FIXTURE: an integral, separate or self-contained unit which may contain one or more bulbs or fluorescent tubes.
FLAME-RETARDANT: means so constructed or treated that it will not readily burn or convey flame.
FLAMMABLE: applied to readily combustible or ignitable materials such as straw, hay, wood shavings, light draperies, celluloid oils, gasoline, etc.
FLASHOVER: is a disruptive discharge around or over the surface of a solid or liquid insulator.
FLEXIBLE CONDUIT: non-rigid metal conduit into which conductors may be drawn.
FLEXIBLE TUBING: non-metallic and non-rigid tubing commonly known as “loom”, into which a conductor may be drawn.
FOOTCANDLE, FC: is the unit of illumination when the foot is taken as the unit of length. It is the illumination on a surface one square foot in area on which there is uniformly distributed flux of one lumen, or the illumination produced at a surface all point of which are at a distance of one foot from a uniform point source of one candle.
FOOTINGS: are structure set in the ground to support the bases of towers, poles or other overhead structures.
FUSE: is an overcurrent protective device with a circuit-opening fusible member which is heated and severed by the passage of overcurrent through it.
FUSE CURRENT RATING: the current rating of a fuse is designed RMS alternating, or direct current which will carry continuously under stated conditions.
FUSE CUTOUT: is a form of use and its holder or enclosure characterized by the ready and safe replace ability of the fuse unit.
FUSE HOLDER: is a device to support a fusible, link and to complete the contact between the fusible link and the fuse clips.
FUSE VOLTAGE RATING: the voltage rating of a fuse is that RMS alternating or direct voltage for which it is designated.
GAS-TIGHT: so constructed that gas cannot enter the enclosing case.
GENERAL-USE SWITCH: a switch intended for use in general distribution and branch-circuits. It is rated in amperes and is capable of interrupting its rated current at rated voltage.
GROUND: is a conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment and earth, or to some conducting body which serves in place of the earth.
GROUNDED: means connected to earth or to some conducting body which serves in place of the earth.
GROUNDED CIRCUIT: is a circuit in which one conductor or point is intentionally grounded, either solidity or though a grounding device. Usually the neutral conductor or neutral point of transformer or generator windings.
GROUNDED-ELECTRODE: a buried metallic water-piping system, or metal object or device buried in, or driven into, the ground to which a grounding-conductor is electrically and mechanically connected.
GROUNDING CONDUCTOR: a conductor used to connect an equipment, device or wiring system with a grounding electrode or electrodes.
GUARDED: Covered, shielded, fenced, enclosed or otherwise protected, by means of suitable covers or casings barriers, rails or screens, mats or platforms, to remove the liability of dangerous contact or approach by persons or objects to a point of danger.
GUY: is a tension member usually galvanized wire, having one and secured fixed object on the ground and the other end attached to a pole, cross arm or other structural part which it supports.
GUY INSULATOR: is an insulating element, generally of elongated form with traverse holes or slots for the purpose of insulating two sections of a guy or provide insulation between structure and anchor and also provide protection in case of broken wires falling on the guy.
PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE REVIEWER
FIVE METHODS OF COMPENSATION
% OF CONSTRUCTION COST.
MULTIPLE OF DIRECT PERSONNAL EXPENSES
PROFESSIONAL FEE + EXPENSES
LUMP SUM OR FIXED FEE
PER DIEM + REIMBURSIBLE EXPENSE
PROJECT CLASSIFICATION
GROUP 1 = Simplest, min. fin, structural, etc. (50 million & less = 6%)
Armories, Bakeries, Freight, Parking, Market, Warehouse
GROUP 2 = Moderate complexity, (50 million & less = 7 %)
Banks, City Halls, School, Mall, Motel, Apartment, Office Bldg
GROUP 3 = Exceptional char., large amount Structural, etc. (50 million & less = 8%)
Atomic Fac., Airport, Gym, Lab., Hotels. Hospital, Breweries,
GROUP 4 = Residence (Single Det & Duplex) (10 % of Proj. Const. Cost)
GROUP 5 = Monumental Bldg. (12 % of Proj Const. Cost)
Expo, Mausoleum, Museums
GROUP 6 = Repetitive Const. of Bldgs
1st Structure = Min. Basic fee
2nd Structure = 80 % of Basic F
3rd Structure = 60 % of Basic F
Succeding = 40 % of Basic F
GROUP 7 = Housing Projects (Several Res. Units on a Single Site)
1st Unit = 10 % of Proj. Const.Cost as BASIC FEE
2-10 Units = 1 unit + 60% of 1st Unit (Basic F)
11 & above = 10 units + 30% of 1st Unit (Basic F)
GROUP 8 = Interior & Landscaping Design (Extensive detailing)
Min Basic fee = 15% of Project Const Cost
GROUP 9 = for Alterations & Additions of Existing Bldgs
50% of the total of 150% of the Basic Fee
GROUP 10 = Consultation and Arbitrations
Architects Services & Compensations
UAP DOC 201 PRE – DESIGN SERVICES
- Compensated on the basis of MULIPLE OF DIRECT PERSONNEL EXPENSE – 2 - 2.5
- Compensated for every technical hour
- Progress Payment
UAP DOC 202 DESIGN SERVICES
Upon Signing of Agreement = 5%
Upon Completion of Schemes (not >15 days) = 15%
Upon completion of Design Devt. = 35%
Upon Completion of Contract Documents = 85%
After Awarding of contracts = 85%
Balance = upon completion of Const Work
Work Suspended or Abandoned
The remaining 15% of his work to be paid by owner is:
10% - Arch. Liability under the civil code
5% - construction Services
UAP DOC 203 SPECIALIZED ALLIED SERVICES
Payment Schedule:
1. Upon Submission of preliminary design = 30 % of the fee
2. Upon Submission of Final design = 50%
3. Upon completion of he project = 20%
INTERIOR DESIGN SERVICES
Architects fee = 15% but it can be range 12% -20%
Consultants Fee = 5 %
ACOUSTICS, ECE SERVICES and LANDSCAPE DESIGN SERVICES
Architects fee = 10% - 15% Consultants Fee = 5 %
PHYSICAL PLANNING
TYPE 1 = 50 HEC or less = 5,000 / hec
TYPE 2 = 100 HEC or less = 3.000 / hec
TYPE 3 = 100 HEC or less = 2,000 / hec.
*the above stipulated rate is for moderately flat land
If the land is rugged w/ steep terrain the fee shall inc. 30 %
Environmental Planner – Concerned w/ the management & use of lands/conservation
Fees = Physical Planning Prof. Fess + expenses
UAP DOC 204 CONSTRUCTION SERVICES
Quality Control of Work, Evaluation & Const. Work, Keeping of Records, Reports & Contracts Doc.,
Architects as FULL TIME SUPERVISOR = 1% - 1 ½ % of Const Cost
Architects as CONSTRUCTION MANAGER = 1 ½ % - 3 % of Const Cost
-coordination & supervision, cost & time control, quality control of work.
UAP DOC 205 POST - CONSTRUCTION SERVICES
Bldg & Equipment Maintenance, Bldg & Ground Admin., Post –Construction Evaluation
Compensation = Salary Basis (fixed monthly/daily)
or Management fee ( 4 % - 6 % gross rentals)
UAP DOC 206 COMPREHENSIVE ARCHITECTURAL SERVICES
Scope: Pre- Design to Post Construction Services
Project Manager = (2 % - 5 % of Estimated Project Cost)
-Coordinates the whole range of Comprehensive arch.
UAP DOC 207 DESIGN- BUILD SERVICES
Architects is liable of both design & Construction
TYPES:
1. Design- Build Services by Administration = 7% + Architects fee on Regular D Services
2. Design – Build Services on a Guaranteed Maximum Cost = 10% + Architects fee on RDS
3. Design – Build Service on Lump Sum Contract
UAP DOC 208 SELECTION OF ARCHITECTS
UAP DOC 209 COMPETITION CODE
UAP DOC 301 GENERAL CONDITIONS
UAP DOC 307 PRACTICAL SPECIFICATIONS WRITING
UAP DOC 200 CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT
PP – UAP DOC. 211 (RA 545, PD 223, LOI 1000) – Prof. Regulatory Laws Governing the Practice of Architecture
RA 545 – an act to regulate the practice of architecture in the Philippines.
PD 223 – Creating the professional regulation commission and prescribing its powers & functions.
LOI 1000 – Letter of Instruction
PD 1096 National Building Code.
BP 344 An act to enhance The mobility of disabled persons.
PD 1185 Fire Code of the Philippines
RA 386 Civil Codes of the Philippines
(Contracts and Obligations)
PD 957 Subdivision Law
BP 220 Zoning Regulations
PD 856 Sanitation Code of the Philippines
architecture - comfort and energy
click here to DOWNLOAD :
BOOK' (PDF FILE) architecture - comfort and energy
credit to: sir Jhun Marticio :)
THANKYOU ^^
BOOK' (PDF FILE) architecture - comfort and energy
credit to: sir Jhun Marticio :)
THANKYOU ^^
Tuesday, April 10, 2012
3.0 LOCATION THEORY: THE FOUNDATION OF PLANNING
3.0 LOCATION THEORY: THE FOUNDATION OF PLANNING
At the end of the lesson the students must be able to:
1. Understand the location theory as the foundation of planning.
2. Identify the location theory of Johann Heinrich von Thunen and William Alonso.
Dissatisfaction on the part of individuals and groups concerning their relationships with the environment will lead them to take modifying actions. These changes could include:
- the nature of the activity itself
- the space in which it was carried out
- its location with respect to all other activities
- the kinds of communications made with activities at other locations
- the channels which served to carry or transmit them
Modifying actions cause repercussions on other activities, spaces, communications, and channels. Ex. when a man decides to leave his car for work and uses the train, his action causes repercussions though how trivial and unnoticeable. But if several hundred are to do the same, then the effects would be noticeable
Actions taken by individuals and groups in interest can bring about conditions which give rise to serious social, economic, and aesthetic problems connected with the use of land.
Planning seeks to…
a) regulate or control the activity of individual and groups in such a way as to minimize the bad effects which may arise.
b) promote better performance of the physical environment in accordance with a set of broad aims and more specific objectives set out in a plan.
14
Location theory…
� explains the pattern of land use
� indicates a solution to the problem of what is the most rational use of land suggesting ways in which the current pattern can be improved.
Johann Heinrich von Thunen (1826)…
� postulated that around a central town
-rural land of constant fertility assumed different forms
(the type of land use varies with distance away from the market)
- land use diminishing intensively in reverse relationship to increased distance from the town.
(The intensity of production declines with distance away from the market)
� land in greatest demand would be as near as possible to the market on account of low transport costs.
- the highest rent would be gained for this advantage and the highest value output per hectare would accrue.
� outer belt would have little demand for land because of transport costs.
- rent would be low and the value of extensive production would be correspondingly low.
14
Modifications…
� overall use pattern might be modified by the existence of a navigable river.
…cost of river transport are low especially for bulky commodities compared to fairly high transport cost overland.
…river would have the effect of extending the different land uses almost parallel along its course.
� further modification might occur if a small city with its own production zones is located within the land use pattern of the main settlements.
Von Thunen model assumed unlikely conditions such as production taking place around an isolated market place and soil being of constant fertility. However, it established a distance-cost relationship which recently became the basis of urban location theory.
© as price mechanism largely decides the profitability or utility of goods and services, it subsequently determines the location of activity and the spatial structure of the urban area supplying these goods and services
15
William Alonso…
� rents diminish outward from the center of a city to offset both lower revenue and higher operating costs and not least transport costs.
…a rent gradient would compensate for falling revenue and higher operating costs
…different land uses would have different rent gradients, the use with the highest gradient prevailing.
use “a” prevails up to a distance of 2kms from the CBD, from 2 to 5kms use “b” is dominant, and beyond 5kms use “c” prevails.
a change of use could be expected to take place through the price mechanism when one gradient falls below another.
Alonso model did not specify the type of land use associated with each bid-gradient.
assumed that the urban area has a single nucleus and that the market for land is perfect.
Locational determinants of commercial and industrial use…
16
A. COST
� price and rent of land fall with increased distance from the CBD.
� wages are higher in the center
…local demand for labor being greater than local supply.
…commuting costs need to be offset by higher remuneration. (transport cost more of a reflection of accessibility than distance)
� locations close to junctions, nodes and terminals are particularly favored maximizing proximity to suppliers and markets.
� decentralized shopping centers are being developed following road improvement and increased car ownership.
� modern manufacturing industry relies increasingly on heavy road vehicles for long distance transportation and incurs lower transport costs on the fringes of cities than at more central locations.
B. REVENUE
� retailing revenue is determined by the size of the shopping catchment area or hinterland, not just in terms of population but in terms of purchasing power.
� distribution of the day-time population and points of maximum transit (where people cluster together) are also important.
� in the case of offices, the spatial distribution, number and size of client establishments determine revenue.
� revenue is thus greatest within the CBD and so are the aggregate costs.
…as distance from the center increases, revenue falls and aggregate costs (after falling initially) rises.
…this is due to the upward pull of transport costs, which are no longer offset sufficiently by economies in the use of land and labor.
…only within a fairly short distance from the CBD are commercial users able to realize high profitability.
17
C. PROFITABILITY
� to maximize profits, firms need to locate where they can benefit from both the greatest revenue and from the lowest costs.
� specialized functions and activities serving the urban market as a whole will locate centrally.
� firms requiring large sites and those attempting to reduce costs of over-concentration will be attracted to the suburbs.
� firms locating close together to benefit from complementary will incur lower costs because of external economies and enjoy higher revenue due to joint demand.
…since there is a high degree of inertia, most firms find it difficult to adjust their locations to the optimum.
…a satisfactory rather than ideal location moreover is established by zoning and land use controls.
A mixture of interacting influences usually explain each locational decision.
.....as price mechanism largely decides the profitability or utility of goods and services, it subsequently determines the location of activity and the spatial structure of the urban area supplying these goods and services
.....high levels of accessibility within the CBD are reflected in low transport cost attracting greatest demand for commercial sites
.....conversely, low over-all accessibility and high transport cost outside urban areas will attract a much lower level of demand.
.....other possible influences: changes in population, technology and transportation, pressures from redeveloped central areas and local and central government policy.
D. LOCATION
A factor which, as propagated by the adage “location, location, location” is considered to be the foremost determinant in the catalyzing of the decision to purchase.
True in the practice of conventional suburban development
Downside being that a preexistence of excellence in location is
18
invariably associated with high cost of land acquisition
Created by proximity to a desirable factor such as transportation, a waterfront, a slope, a long vista, a pleasant climate, a popular resort, or a desirable community
Only method to economically achieve the value added by location is to create it on inexpensive land through Planned Neighborhood Development.
STUDY QUESTIONS:
1. Describe the location theory of Johann Heinrich von Thunen.
2. Describe the location theory of William Alonso.
3. What are the locational determinants of commercial and industrial use.
At the end of the lesson the students must be able to:
1. Understand the location theory as the foundation of planning.
2. Identify the location theory of Johann Heinrich von Thunen and William Alonso.
Dissatisfaction on the part of individuals and groups concerning their relationships with the environment will lead them to take modifying actions. These changes could include:
- the nature of the activity itself
- the space in which it was carried out
- its location with respect to all other activities
- the kinds of communications made with activities at other locations
- the channels which served to carry or transmit them
Modifying actions cause repercussions on other activities, spaces, communications, and channels. Ex. when a man decides to leave his car for work and uses the train, his action causes repercussions though how trivial and unnoticeable. But if several hundred are to do the same, then the effects would be noticeable
Actions taken by individuals and groups in interest can bring about conditions which give rise to serious social, economic, and aesthetic problems connected with the use of land.
Planning seeks to…
a) regulate or control the activity of individual and groups in such a way as to minimize the bad effects which may arise.
b) promote better performance of the physical environment in accordance with a set of broad aims and more specific objectives set out in a plan.
14
Location theory…
� explains the pattern of land use
� indicates a solution to the problem of what is the most rational use of land suggesting ways in which the current pattern can be improved.
Johann Heinrich von Thunen (1826)…
� postulated that around a central town
-rural land of constant fertility assumed different forms
(the type of land use varies with distance away from the market)
- land use diminishing intensively in reverse relationship to increased distance from the town.
(The intensity of production declines with distance away from the market)
� land in greatest demand would be as near as possible to the market on account of low transport costs.
- the highest rent would be gained for this advantage and the highest value output per hectare would accrue.
� outer belt would have little demand for land because of transport costs.
- rent would be low and the value of extensive production would be correspondingly low.
14
Modifications…
� overall use pattern might be modified by the existence of a navigable river.
…cost of river transport are low especially for bulky commodities compared to fairly high transport cost overland.
…river would have the effect of extending the different land uses almost parallel along its course.
� further modification might occur if a small city with its own production zones is located within the land use pattern of the main settlements.
Von Thunen model assumed unlikely conditions such as production taking place around an isolated market place and soil being of constant fertility. However, it established a distance-cost relationship which recently became the basis of urban location theory.
© as price mechanism largely decides the profitability or utility of goods and services, it subsequently determines the location of activity and the spatial structure of the urban area supplying these goods and services
15
William Alonso…
� rents diminish outward from the center of a city to offset both lower revenue and higher operating costs and not least transport costs.
…a rent gradient would compensate for falling revenue and higher operating costs
…different land uses would have different rent gradients, the use with the highest gradient prevailing.
use “a” prevails up to a distance of 2kms from the CBD, from 2 to 5kms use “b” is dominant, and beyond 5kms use “c” prevails.
a change of use could be expected to take place through the price mechanism when one gradient falls below another.
Alonso model did not specify the type of land use associated with each bid-gradient.
assumed that the urban area has a single nucleus and that the market for land is perfect.
Locational determinants of commercial and industrial use…
16
A. COST
� price and rent of land fall with increased distance from the CBD.
� wages are higher in the center
…local demand for labor being greater than local supply.
…commuting costs need to be offset by higher remuneration. (transport cost more of a reflection of accessibility than distance)
� locations close to junctions, nodes and terminals are particularly favored maximizing proximity to suppliers and markets.
� decentralized shopping centers are being developed following road improvement and increased car ownership.
� modern manufacturing industry relies increasingly on heavy road vehicles for long distance transportation and incurs lower transport costs on the fringes of cities than at more central locations.
B. REVENUE
� retailing revenue is determined by the size of the shopping catchment area or hinterland, not just in terms of population but in terms of purchasing power.
� distribution of the day-time population and points of maximum transit (where people cluster together) are also important.
� in the case of offices, the spatial distribution, number and size of client establishments determine revenue.
� revenue is thus greatest within the CBD and so are the aggregate costs.
…as distance from the center increases, revenue falls and aggregate costs (after falling initially) rises.
…this is due to the upward pull of transport costs, which are no longer offset sufficiently by economies in the use of land and labor.
…only within a fairly short distance from the CBD are commercial users able to realize high profitability.
17
C. PROFITABILITY
� to maximize profits, firms need to locate where they can benefit from both the greatest revenue and from the lowest costs.
� specialized functions and activities serving the urban market as a whole will locate centrally.
� firms requiring large sites and those attempting to reduce costs of over-concentration will be attracted to the suburbs.
� firms locating close together to benefit from complementary will incur lower costs because of external economies and enjoy higher revenue due to joint demand.
…since there is a high degree of inertia, most firms find it difficult to adjust their locations to the optimum.
…a satisfactory rather than ideal location moreover is established by zoning and land use controls.
A mixture of interacting influences usually explain each locational decision.
.....as price mechanism largely decides the profitability or utility of goods and services, it subsequently determines the location of activity and the spatial structure of the urban area supplying these goods and services
.....high levels of accessibility within the CBD are reflected in low transport cost attracting greatest demand for commercial sites
.....conversely, low over-all accessibility and high transport cost outside urban areas will attract a much lower level of demand.
.....other possible influences: changes in population, technology and transportation, pressures from redeveloped central areas and local and central government policy.
D. LOCATION
A factor which, as propagated by the adage “location, location, location” is considered to be the foremost determinant in the catalyzing of the decision to purchase.
True in the practice of conventional suburban development
Downside being that a preexistence of excellence in location is
18
invariably associated with high cost of land acquisition
Created by proximity to a desirable factor such as transportation, a waterfront, a slope, a long vista, a pleasant climate, a popular resort, or a desirable community
Only method to economically achieve the value added by location is to create it on inexpensive land through Planned Neighborhood Development.
STUDY QUESTIONS:
1. Describe the location theory of Johann Heinrich von Thunen.
2. Describe the location theory of William Alonso.
3. What are the locational determinants of commercial and industrial use.
EKISTICS THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
2.0 EKISTICS THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
At the end of the lesson the students must be able to:
1. Understand the origin of ekistics
2. Connect the past ekistics or human settlement to the present one.
3. Understand better the ekistics of the present then renew or connect it to the future.
Human settlements are no longer satisfactory for their inhabitants…
�economically speaking
- don’t have the means to satisfy their basic needs
- remain homeless or live in houses of very low quality
�social point of view
- man appears to be lost in the big cities
- feels abandoned by progress in many small towns/villages
�political level
- new types of societies and new types of people have not found their corresponding political institution.
�technical point of view
- most settlements don’t have the facilities indispensable to their proper functioning in spite of the technological achievements
�aesthetically
- the ugliness of human settlements around
creating better conditions for tomorrow can be understood better if we look into the different elements of the human settlements…
Human Settlements & their Elements
Human settlements are settlements inhabited by man. Human settlements should satisfy man.
Human settlements consist of:
a. the CONTENT (man, alone or in societies)
b. the CONTAINER (or the physical settlement, which consists both natural and man-made or artificial elements)
9
When taken together make up the human settlement whose largest possible dimensions are defined by the geographic limits of the earths surface.
The total surface of the Earth:
�the largest possible container of man
�the whole cosmos of man
�the cosmos of the anthropos
�the anthropocosmos
Such definition of human settlement implies that it is not merely 3-dimensional but 4-dimensional. . .
- man & society change continuously and by so doing, create functions which unlike shells (which can be conceived in 3-dimensional terms) require a fourth dimension ---TIME in order to be carried out
- a 3-dimensional conception of a settlement is very like a film which suddenly stops and arrest all the figures in their movements. A still photograph of a building looks real only if there are no human figures in the pictures; if people have been arrested in the process of walking in front of the building, then the picture is frozen, unreal.
A human settlement needs both categories of elements in order to
10
come into existence…
� man alone or in groups, if not settled anywhere cannot be said to form a settlement or even a part of one.
� once he does settle somewhere even temporary, we have a temporary, elementary settlement in which a pattern of relationship between man and his container comes into existence for a certain period of time (one day, many days, or one season) regardless of whether the container is a natural one ( a cave) or man-made (tent or a building).
Nature alone, without man, cannot be said to form a settlement or even a container, since it has no human content…
� a man-made settlement is only the corpse or the abandoned shell of a settlement, which must be considered dead as in any other corpse.
� some people call dead settlement a “settlement” but this is no more correct calling the shell of a snail a snail.
� term is used in many such cases for reasons of simplicity, but this is not accurate and should be used with care to avoid confusion.
2 basic elements of human settlements (Doxiadis)
THE CONTENT AND THE CONTAINER
This can be further subdivided into 5 categories (in hierarchical order)
(Container)� NATURE – providing the foundation upon which the settlement is created and the frame within it can function
(Content)� MAN – an individual, Homo Sapiens
- biological needs (oxygen, nutrition)
- sensation and perception (5 senses)
- emotional needs (satisfaction, security, sense of belonging)
- moral values
(Content)� SOCIETY – a group of individuals sharing the same culture, values, norms, and traditions
(Container)� SHELLS or the structures within which man lives and carries out his different functions, the built component.
(Container)� NETWORKS or the natural and man-made system which facilitate the functioning of the settlement, or links within
11
the settlement, roads, communications systems, utilities, etc.
Hierarchy of human settlements…
� a hamlet, a neighborhood, a small village
� a community, a town
� a city, an urban area
� a metropolis
� a conurbation – a composite of cities, metropolises, urban areas
� a megalopolis – merging of two or more metropolises with a population of 10M or more; a 20th century phenomenon (Megalopolis - concept coined by Jean Gottmann for urban complexes in the Northeastern United States.)
… a hierarchy of settlements is characterized by a few large cities, some medium-sized cities, and many small settlements.
At the end of the lesson the students must be able to:
1. Understand the origin of ekistics
2. Connect the past ekistics or human settlement to the present one.
3. Understand better the ekistics of the present then renew or connect it to the future.
Human settlements are no longer satisfactory for their inhabitants…
�economically speaking
- don’t have the means to satisfy their basic needs
- remain homeless or live in houses of very low quality
�social point of view
- man appears to be lost in the big cities
- feels abandoned by progress in many small towns/villages
�political level
- new types of societies and new types of people have not found their corresponding political institution.
�technical point of view
- most settlements don’t have the facilities indispensable to their proper functioning in spite of the technological achievements
�aesthetically
- the ugliness of human settlements around
creating better conditions for tomorrow can be understood better if we look into the different elements of the human settlements…
Human Settlements & their Elements
Human settlements are settlements inhabited by man. Human settlements should satisfy man.
Human settlements consist of:
a. the CONTENT (man, alone or in societies)
b. the CONTAINER (or the physical settlement, which consists both natural and man-made or artificial elements)
9
When taken together make up the human settlement whose largest possible dimensions are defined by the geographic limits of the earths surface.
The total surface of the Earth:
�the largest possible container of man
�the whole cosmos of man
�the cosmos of the anthropos
�the anthropocosmos
Such definition of human settlement implies that it is not merely 3-dimensional but 4-dimensional. . .
- man & society change continuously and by so doing, create functions which unlike shells (which can be conceived in 3-dimensional terms) require a fourth dimension ---TIME in order to be carried out
- a 3-dimensional conception of a settlement is very like a film which suddenly stops and arrest all the figures in their movements. A still photograph of a building looks real only if there are no human figures in the pictures; if people have been arrested in the process of walking in front of the building, then the picture is frozen, unreal.
A human settlement needs both categories of elements in order to
10
come into existence…
� man alone or in groups, if not settled anywhere cannot be said to form a settlement or even a part of one.
� once he does settle somewhere even temporary, we have a temporary, elementary settlement in which a pattern of relationship between man and his container comes into existence for a certain period of time (one day, many days, or one season) regardless of whether the container is a natural one ( a cave) or man-made (tent or a building).
Nature alone, without man, cannot be said to form a settlement or even a container, since it has no human content…
� a man-made settlement is only the corpse or the abandoned shell of a settlement, which must be considered dead as in any other corpse.
� some people call dead settlement a “settlement” but this is no more correct calling the shell of a snail a snail.
� term is used in many such cases for reasons of simplicity, but this is not accurate and should be used with care to avoid confusion.
2 basic elements of human settlements (Doxiadis)
THE CONTENT AND THE CONTAINER
This can be further subdivided into 5 categories (in hierarchical order)
(Container)� NATURE – providing the foundation upon which the settlement is created and the frame within it can function
(Content)� MAN – an individual, Homo Sapiens
- biological needs (oxygen, nutrition)
- sensation and perception (5 senses)
- emotional needs (satisfaction, security, sense of belonging)
- moral values
(Content)� SOCIETY – a group of individuals sharing the same culture, values, norms, and traditions
(Container)� SHELLS or the structures within which man lives and carries out his different functions, the built component.
(Container)� NETWORKS or the natural and man-made system which facilitate the functioning of the settlement, or links within
11
the settlement, roads, communications systems, utilities, etc.
Hierarchy of human settlements…
� a hamlet, a neighborhood, a small village
� a community, a town
� a city, an urban area
� a metropolis
� a conurbation – a composite of cities, metropolises, urban areas
� a megalopolis – merging of two or more metropolises with a population of 10M or more; a 20th century phenomenon (Megalopolis - concept coined by Jean Gottmann for urban complexes in the Northeastern United States.)
… a hierarchy of settlements is characterized by a few large cities, some medium-sized cities, and many small settlements.
INTRODUCTION: HUMANS IN THEIR ECOLOGICAL SETTING
1.0 INTRODUCTION: HUMANS IN THEIR ECOLOGICAL SETTING
At the end of the lesson the students must be able to:
1. Understand the relationship of human and their natural, social and built environment.
2. Learn the different human ecological concepts.
Human ecology is the interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments.
Ecology as a discipline was technically born when Ernst Haeckel used the word "oekologie" in 1866 to describe the study of an organism’s relationship to its environment. Ecology was revolutionary at this time because it encouraged interdisciplinarity within the sciences—it created a bridge between the physical sciences and the biological sciences in order to study systems of both biotic and abiotic factors.
Human ecology is composed of concepts from ecology like interconnectivity, community behavior, and spatial organization. From the beginning, human ecology was present in geography and sociology, but also in biological ecology and zoology. However, it was the social scientists who applied ecological ideas to humans in a rigorous way. Throughout the 20th century, few biological ecologists really tackled human ecology, but they tended to focus on humans’ impact on the biotic world----which is only half of the picture. Paul Sears is the perfect example of this, an ecologist who realized the disastrous effects that humans were having on the environment and called for human ecology to act as a means to solve them. However, some social scientists expanded human ecology to include also the physical environment's impact on people.
It is interesting to note that although social scientist human ecologists got their ideas from biological ecologists, these early biological ecologists had originally adapted social concepts to the natural world. These concepts that transcended disciplines and passed from the social to the biological and back to the social are the basis for human ecology.
The academic foundations of a human ecology can be attributed to the sociology department at the University of Chicago and to the work of Robert E. Park and Ernest W. Burgess’ 1921 book Introduction to the Science of Sociology. Park and Burgess used ecological concepts like those from Frederick Clements and Charles Darwin to describe human systems, specifically focusing on cities. Their student, Roderick McKenzie also played an important role in solidifying human ecology as a sub-discipline within the Chicago school. They emphasized that the difference between human ecology and the ecology of other organisms is that human societies are organized on not only the biotic level but the cultural level as well.
Human ecology as human-environment interactions is an ancient idea in geography. In the modern era, the term appears as early as 1908 in the discipline (Titles and Abstracts of Papers Presented to the Association from 1904 to 1910, Inclusive). Harlan Barrows addresses the topic in his presidential speech to the Association of American Geographers in 1923. Barrows’ speech is an attempt to redefine geography as the science of human ecology, emphasizing its study of humans’ relationships with the land instead of just a regional study of the physical land.
In the early 1950s anthropologists, led by Julian H. Steward, began to further develop this human ecological study of culture, asserting that it is the intermediary between humans and their environments and what makes humans unique. Anthropologists had long been interested in humans’ direct relationships with their environments so it was easy for them to incorporate human ecology into their discipline.
Psychological ecology was also developing at the same time—a field that expanded a person’s “environment” to include their mental representation of it and focused on studying people’s behavior under field conditions instead of in a controlled laboratory setting. Kurt Lewin emphasized that the “ecology” of this mental world was the study of relations within consciousness, dramatically shifting the term but further expanding the realm of human ecology.
Ecological ideas also showed up in economics, with Kenneth E. Boulding being the strongest proponent for integrating the two disciplines that share semantic origins (“eco” meaning house). Boulding drew parallels between ecology and economics, most generally in that they are both studies of individuals as members of a system, and indicated that the “household of man” and the “household of nature” could somehow be integrated to create a perspective of greater value.[9][10]
In the late 1960s, ecological concepts started to become integrated into the applied fields, namely architecture, landscape architecture, and planning. Ian McHarg called for a future when all planning would be “human ecological planning” by default, always bound up in humans’ relationships with their environments. He emphasized local, place-based planning that takes into consideration all the “layers” of information from geology to botany to zoology to cultural history.
In these early years, human ecology was still deeply enmeshed in its respective disciplines: geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and economics. Through the 1970s and 80s scholars like Gerald L. Young and Britta Jungen began to call for a greater integration between all of the scattered disciplines that had each established some kind of ecological thinking. It was clear that throughout the 20th century human ecology was solidly multidisciplinary, in that it included people from a vast variety of disciplines, but it had not yet become interdisciplinary. During the 1970s and 80s this slowly began to change as more interdisciplinary programs, institutions, and organizations became founded focusing on human ecology.
Many people have contributed to the study of human ecology. The following are some of the most influential scholars:
• Harlan H. Barrows was a geographer who considered human ecology to be the unique field of geography. Barrows regarded human ecology as the relation between geography and the environment and divides it into three areas: economic geography (what people need and want), political geography (relating to organizations), and social geography (connections between people
• Robert Ezra Park was an urban sociologist who considered human ecology as the study of the relationship between biotic balance and social equilibrium. He emphasized the cultural structure of human society which he separated into groups: ecological, economic, political, and moral.
• Kurt Lewin, a psychologist, worked for the US government during World War II to change people's attitudes toward rationing. In his study, he used "the environment" to describe the mental environment, expanding human ecology into the world of the mind.
• Kenneth E. Boulding, an economist, saw a strong correlation between economics and ecology based around five basic similarities between the two: 1) Both study individuals as members of a species (for ecology, populations of individuals, and for economics, populations of commodities). 2) Both have a concept of equilibrium (for ecology, an equilibrium of populations, and for economics, an equilibrium of price systems). 3) Both involve a system exchange among their various individuals and species that is important in determining equilibrium. 4) Both imply some concept of development. 5) Both are subject to their equilibriums distorted by policy (for ecology, agriculture, and for economics, government).[15]
• As an anthropologist, Julian Steward emphasized the role that culture has in explaining the nature of human societies. He considered human society to be dictated by much more than the immediate physical environment and biotic assemblage. The nature of local group is determined by both local adaptations and larger institutions.
• Roderick D. McKenzie was a sociologist associated with the University of Chicago. McKenzie believed human ecology to be concerned with the process of spatial grouping of interacting human beings or of interrelated human institutions.
• Gerald L. Young was an influential player in the development of Human Ecology. He was the fourth president of Society for Human Ecology (SHE) and is considered one of SHE’s founders. Young is a recognized leader in pulling together the field of human ecology for his scholarly publications in human ecology, including “Origins of Human Ecology” and “The Shadows of Consumption: Consequences for the Global Environment."
• Ian McHarg was a landscape architect and writer on regional planning using natural systems. He was the founder of the department of landscape architecture at the University of Pennsylvania in the United States. His 1969 book Design with Nature pioneered the concept of ecological planning.
• Rusong Wang, an urban systems ecologist at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, defines human ecology, in Chinese terms as the science of the living state or dynamics of the human being, driven by objective and subjective factors. It involves understanding, planning, and management. According to Wang, Chinese human ecologists are searching for a feasible future for their nation that includes high efficiency, sustainable development, and harmonious relationships between social, economic, and natural systems.
• Dieter Steiner, at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, had a vision of how to combat the global environmental crises by integrating the sciences with outside disciplines, understanding our evolutionary past, and developing personal integration and relatedness to the world outside the self. He developed many conceptual frameworks to better visualize how to go about these processes. Along with Markus Nauser, he edited the "Human Ecology: fragments of anti-fragmentary views of the world."
• Gregory Bateson, generally known as a British anthropologist, contributed to human ecology in the realm of the ecology of mind. He was opposed to the way scientists try to reduce everything to matter; his goal was to re-introduce the mind into the equation. He emphasized the importance of looking at the world not just though reductionist logic, but to understand the connections in the "pattern which connects" all of our minds through stories.
• Stephen Vickers Boyden contributed to human ecology while at the Australia National University working on a comprehensive study of Hong Kong's unique human ecological situation. This study was the basis for UNESCO's Man in the Biosphere Program. Biohistory: The Interplay Between Human Society and the Biosphere generated the Hong Kong Human Ecology Programme
• Bonnie McKay is a professor and chair of the department of human ecology at Rutgers University.
• Gary Haq is a Human Ecologist and Senior Research Associate at the Stockholm Environment Institute at the University of York and often writes for the Yorkshire Post.
Many human ecological concepts come from ecology.
• Perhaps the most fundamental concept of human ecology is interaction, as an assumption that everything interacts with other things and a basis for all further analysis. Interaction is a function of scale, but should be extended to be a function of diversity and complexity.
• Levels of integration is the concept that entities are organized on levels of different scale for better analysis, for example from the level of the molecule, the individual, the family, the community, the population, the biosphere, or the universe.
• Human ecology expands functionalism from ecology to the human mind. People's perception of a complex world is a function of their ability to be able to comprehend beyond the immediate, both in time and in space. This concept manifested in the popular slogan promoting sustainability: "think global, act local." Moreover, people's conception of community stems from not only their physical location but their mental and emotional connections and varies from "community as place, community as way of life, or community of collective action."
• Diversity and stability are contentious topics in ecology; current research shows that ecosystems are less stable than originally thought and high diversity does not immediately translate into high stability. These have not often been applied to human ecology.
• Systems analysis is one way to understand human ecology, however many topics are more complex and it is important to realize that systems analysis is only one way to understand them and fairly simplified. Most systems are not closed and therefore require simplification in order to study them.
• Spatial analysis is essential to human ecology because many of the problems of relations between humans and their environments are physical.
• A gestalt perspective or holistic viewpoint is important to human ecology because it recognizes that we can gain understanding of a system by looking at it as a whole.
• Monodisciplinary: Studies focusing on one specific area. Most institutions of higher learning award degrees based on monodisciplinary majors intended to prepare students for work in a specific discipline.
• Multidisciplinary: A variety of subjects studied concurrently. A liberal arts degree requires students to study a variety of subjects in order to prepare them to be effective citizens in a complex society.
• Interdisciplinary: Integration between disciplines. A human ecological education integrates ideas from different disciplines in order to better addressing complex problems dealing with human/environment (whether social, physical, or mental) interactions.
• Transdisciplinary: A perspective that transcends disciplines. A human ecological education goes beyond integrating different disciplines, creating a worldview that assumes an inherent connectivity when better addressing problems relating to human/environment interactions, but still relying on solid disciplinary foundation.
STUDY QUESTIONS:
1. What is human ecology ?
2. What are the different human ecological concepts?
At the end of the lesson the students must be able to:
1. Understand the relationship of human and their natural, social and built environment.
2. Learn the different human ecological concepts.
Human ecology is the interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments.
Ecology as a discipline was technically born when Ernst Haeckel used the word "oekologie" in 1866 to describe the study of an organism’s relationship to its environment. Ecology was revolutionary at this time because it encouraged interdisciplinarity within the sciences—it created a bridge between the physical sciences and the biological sciences in order to study systems of both biotic and abiotic factors.
Human ecology is composed of concepts from ecology like interconnectivity, community behavior, and spatial organization. From the beginning, human ecology was present in geography and sociology, but also in biological ecology and zoology. However, it was the social scientists who applied ecological ideas to humans in a rigorous way. Throughout the 20th century, few biological ecologists really tackled human ecology, but they tended to focus on humans’ impact on the biotic world----which is only half of the picture. Paul Sears is the perfect example of this, an ecologist who realized the disastrous effects that humans were having on the environment and called for human ecology to act as a means to solve them. However, some social scientists expanded human ecology to include also the physical environment's impact on people.
It is interesting to note that although social scientist human ecologists got their ideas from biological ecologists, these early biological ecologists had originally adapted social concepts to the natural world. These concepts that transcended disciplines and passed from the social to the biological and back to the social are the basis for human ecology.
The academic foundations of a human ecology can be attributed to the sociology department at the University of Chicago and to the work of Robert E. Park and Ernest W. Burgess’ 1921 book Introduction to the Science of Sociology. Park and Burgess used ecological concepts like those from Frederick Clements and Charles Darwin to describe human systems, specifically focusing on cities. Their student, Roderick McKenzie also played an important role in solidifying human ecology as a sub-discipline within the Chicago school. They emphasized that the difference between human ecology and the ecology of other organisms is that human societies are organized on not only the biotic level but the cultural level as well.
Human ecology as human-environment interactions is an ancient idea in geography. In the modern era, the term appears as early as 1908 in the discipline (Titles and Abstracts of Papers Presented to the Association from 1904 to 1910, Inclusive). Harlan Barrows addresses the topic in his presidential speech to the Association of American Geographers in 1923. Barrows’ speech is an attempt to redefine geography as the science of human ecology, emphasizing its study of humans’ relationships with the land instead of just a regional study of the physical land.
In the early 1950s anthropologists, led by Julian H. Steward, began to further develop this human ecological study of culture, asserting that it is the intermediary between humans and their environments and what makes humans unique. Anthropologists had long been interested in humans’ direct relationships with their environments so it was easy for them to incorporate human ecology into their discipline.
Psychological ecology was also developing at the same time—a field that expanded a person’s “environment” to include their mental representation of it and focused on studying people’s behavior under field conditions instead of in a controlled laboratory setting. Kurt Lewin emphasized that the “ecology” of this mental world was the study of relations within consciousness, dramatically shifting the term but further expanding the realm of human ecology.
Ecological ideas also showed up in economics, with Kenneth E. Boulding being the strongest proponent for integrating the two disciplines that share semantic origins (“eco” meaning house). Boulding drew parallels between ecology and economics, most generally in that they are both studies of individuals as members of a system, and indicated that the “household of man” and the “household of nature” could somehow be integrated to create a perspective of greater value.[9][10]
In the late 1960s, ecological concepts started to become integrated into the applied fields, namely architecture, landscape architecture, and planning. Ian McHarg called for a future when all planning would be “human ecological planning” by default, always bound up in humans’ relationships with their environments. He emphasized local, place-based planning that takes into consideration all the “layers” of information from geology to botany to zoology to cultural history.
In these early years, human ecology was still deeply enmeshed in its respective disciplines: geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and economics. Through the 1970s and 80s scholars like Gerald L. Young and Britta Jungen began to call for a greater integration between all of the scattered disciplines that had each established some kind of ecological thinking. It was clear that throughout the 20th century human ecology was solidly multidisciplinary, in that it included people from a vast variety of disciplines, but it had not yet become interdisciplinary. During the 1970s and 80s this slowly began to change as more interdisciplinary programs, institutions, and organizations became founded focusing on human ecology.
Many people have contributed to the study of human ecology. The following are some of the most influential scholars:
• Harlan H. Barrows was a geographer who considered human ecology to be the unique field of geography. Barrows regarded human ecology as the relation between geography and the environment and divides it into three areas: economic geography (what people need and want), political geography (relating to organizations), and social geography (connections between people
• Robert Ezra Park was an urban sociologist who considered human ecology as the study of the relationship between biotic balance and social equilibrium. He emphasized the cultural structure of human society which he separated into groups: ecological, economic, political, and moral.
• Kurt Lewin, a psychologist, worked for the US government during World War II to change people's attitudes toward rationing. In his study, he used "the environment" to describe the mental environment, expanding human ecology into the world of the mind.
• Kenneth E. Boulding, an economist, saw a strong correlation between economics and ecology based around five basic similarities between the two: 1) Both study individuals as members of a species (for ecology, populations of individuals, and for economics, populations of commodities). 2) Both have a concept of equilibrium (for ecology, an equilibrium of populations, and for economics, an equilibrium of price systems). 3) Both involve a system exchange among their various individuals and species that is important in determining equilibrium. 4) Both imply some concept of development. 5) Both are subject to their equilibriums distorted by policy (for ecology, agriculture, and for economics, government).[15]
• As an anthropologist, Julian Steward emphasized the role that culture has in explaining the nature of human societies. He considered human society to be dictated by much more than the immediate physical environment and biotic assemblage. The nature of local group is determined by both local adaptations and larger institutions.
• Roderick D. McKenzie was a sociologist associated with the University of Chicago. McKenzie believed human ecology to be concerned with the process of spatial grouping of interacting human beings or of interrelated human institutions.
• Gerald L. Young was an influential player in the development of Human Ecology. He was the fourth president of Society for Human Ecology (SHE) and is considered one of SHE’s founders. Young is a recognized leader in pulling together the field of human ecology for his scholarly publications in human ecology, including “Origins of Human Ecology” and “The Shadows of Consumption: Consequences for the Global Environment."
• Ian McHarg was a landscape architect and writer on regional planning using natural systems. He was the founder of the department of landscape architecture at the University of Pennsylvania in the United States. His 1969 book Design with Nature pioneered the concept of ecological planning.
• Rusong Wang, an urban systems ecologist at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, defines human ecology, in Chinese terms as the science of the living state or dynamics of the human being, driven by objective and subjective factors. It involves understanding, planning, and management. According to Wang, Chinese human ecologists are searching for a feasible future for their nation that includes high efficiency, sustainable development, and harmonious relationships between social, economic, and natural systems.
• Dieter Steiner, at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, had a vision of how to combat the global environmental crises by integrating the sciences with outside disciplines, understanding our evolutionary past, and developing personal integration and relatedness to the world outside the self. He developed many conceptual frameworks to better visualize how to go about these processes. Along with Markus Nauser, he edited the "Human Ecology: fragments of anti-fragmentary views of the world."
• Gregory Bateson, generally known as a British anthropologist, contributed to human ecology in the realm of the ecology of mind. He was opposed to the way scientists try to reduce everything to matter; his goal was to re-introduce the mind into the equation. He emphasized the importance of looking at the world not just though reductionist logic, but to understand the connections in the "pattern which connects" all of our minds through stories.
• Stephen Vickers Boyden contributed to human ecology while at the Australia National University working on a comprehensive study of Hong Kong's unique human ecological situation. This study was the basis for UNESCO's Man in the Biosphere Program. Biohistory: The Interplay Between Human Society and the Biosphere generated the Hong Kong Human Ecology Programme
• Bonnie McKay is a professor and chair of the department of human ecology at Rutgers University.
• Gary Haq is a Human Ecologist and Senior Research Associate at the Stockholm Environment Institute at the University of York and often writes for the Yorkshire Post.
Many human ecological concepts come from ecology.
• Perhaps the most fundamental concept of human ecology is interaction, as an assumption that everything interacts with other things and a basis for all further analysis. Interaction is a function of scale, but should be extended to be a function of diversity and complexity.
• Levels of integration is the concept that entities are organized on levels of different scale for better analysis, for example from the level of the molecule, the individual, the family, the community, the population, the biosphere, or the universe.
• Human ecology expands functionalism from ecology to the human mind. People's perception of a complex world is a function of their ability to be able to comprehend beyond the immediate, both in time and in space. This concept manifested in the popular slogan promoting sustainability: "think global, act local." Moreover, people's conception of community stems from not only their physical location but their mental and emotional connections and varies from "community as place, community as way of life, or community of collective action."
• Diversity and stability are contentious topics in ecology; current research shows that ecosystems are less stable than originally thought and high diversity does not immediately translate into high stability. These have not often been applied to human ecology.
• Systems analysis is one way to understand human ecology, however many topics are more complex and it is important to realize that systems analysis is only one way to understand them and fairly simplified. Most systems are not closed and therefore require simplification in order to study them.
• Spatial analysis is essential to human ecology because many of the problems of relations between humans and their environments are physical.
• A gestalt perspective or holistic viewpoint is important to human ecology because it recognizes that we can gain understanding of a system by looking at it as a whole.
• Monodisciplinary: Studies focusing on one specific area. Most institutions of higher learning award degrees based on monodisciplinary majors intended to prepare students for work in a specific discipline.
• Multidisciplinary: A variety of subjects studied concurrently. A liberal arts degree requires students to study a variety of subjects in order to prepare them to be effective citizens in a complex society.
• Interdisciplinary: Integration between disciplines. A human ecological education integrates ideas from different disciplines in order to better addressing complex problems dealing with human/environment (whether social, physical, or mental) interactions.
• Transdisciplinary: A perspective that transcends disciplines. A human ecological education goes beyond integrating different disciplines, creating a worldview that assumes an inherent connectivity when better addressing problems relating to human/environment interactions, but still relying on solid disciplinary foundation.
STUDY QUESTIONS:
1. What is human ecology ?
2. What are the different human ecological concepts?
HISTORICAL VIEW AND INFLUENCES
click here to DOWNLOAD :
LECTURE: historical view and influences
credit to: arch Naomi B. Tolentino :)
LECTURE: historical view and influences
credit to: arch Naomi B. Tolentino :)
COMPREHENSIVE DEVELOPMENT PLAN
click here to DOWNLOAD :
LECTURE: comprehensive development plan
credit to: arch Naomi B. Tolentino :)
LECTURE: comprehensive development plan
credit to: arch Naomi B. Tolentino :)
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